The+Jesuits

debbi Shepherd HIST220 Fall 2010

Boston College

The Jesuits

The Jesuits have been important contributors to the Church since their conception. They were a powerful order during the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation

The Jesuits: What Makes Them So Important?

It is not because I am Catholic that I choose to defend the importance of the Jesuits, it is because of the importance of the Catholic Church itself that I choose to. Catholic or not, the importance of the Jesuits and their work goes without controversy, but conflict exists in everything, so I am arguing that they are not only a significant part of the Catholic Church, but they are a significant contributor to society and the educational system. They are one of the most important orders of priests, generally because of the fact that they are the educated, the philosophical, the thinkers. Education and aptitude are important attributes for any order of the clergy, but it is a mandate for the Jesuits. There are many educated clergy and laity throughout the world, and the order of the Jesuit priests was founded to do charitable work, the success of the order was based on the power of knowledge and education, with the exclusive focus of their knowledge to be applied to the betterment of the Church and the Church’s work. The Jesuits not only seek advanced education for themselves and those in their order, but they also share their knowledge by educating others, even the laity and non-Catholics. The superiority of the education pursued and earned by the Jesuits cannot be denied because it is a fact, with most earning a Ph.D. “The Jesuit priest often received a doctoral degree in secular science, such as math, chemistry, biology, or law, along with his religious background of philosophy and theology” (Trigilio and Brighenti 375). However, the purpose for their advanced education is frequently challenged by those not accepting their education as being for education only or for the good of the Church, but by implying it to be for sinister or cunning reasons.

Not only are the Jesuits book-learned, but they are very capable of thinking outside the normal. They analyze and contemplate, therefore are philosophical. Winterton writes of the philosophical strength of the Jesuits in support of the Church. In the essay he is addressing the concept that even though philosophy is only second in position of importance to the Jesuits, it is still a necessary instruction. Winterton questions, “By what means can the interests of the Church be best promoted intellectually?” He then sets up his argument by writing “it is a fact that the better and stronger the arguments given in favour of the Church, the more easy a task it is to believe. Therefore it only remains to look out the best arguments and the best system of philosophy whereby to defend the Church.” Winterton arguments that the intellect and philosophy learned and used by the Jesuits are in the best interest of the Church, therefore reiterating a known fact of the Jesuits. They are the order of the educated priests and their abilities allow them to think through what needs to be done rather than just to act or react. Jesuits ability to think has caused their order to be referred (often kindly, often unkindly) as cunning, shrewd, perceptive, insightful, understanding, or observant, meaning they are capable of being astute or of acute mental/analytical ability.

The Jesuits are a religious order of the Catholic Church that has held literally every occupation in the Church at one time or another. Even though they perform ministry duties in the church, in hospitals, and in mission work, but they are best known for their education and their educational work, doing research, teaching and founding educational facilities. The Jesuits brought into being some of the best schools, colleges and universities in the world. The Jesuits were founded under the name of the Society of Jesus on August 15, 1534, and accepted as an official order of the Christian Church on September, 27, 1540 by the then current papal, Pope Paul III. Ignatius established the Society of Jesus by putting the concept of love based on deeds above love based exclusively on feelings, actions above words. The name "Jesuit" itself was never used by its founder, Ignatius, although other members used it endearingly in a positive manner. It was used for the first time in approximately 1544, and in essence stands to mean “//one who uses or takes for one’s own use the name of Jesus.//

The founding father, Ignatius of Loyola, lived from 1491 – 1556. St. Ignatius had been a soldier and was wounded in battle in 1522. During his long recovery, the only reading material to be found was the Bible and numerous books containing information on the lives of the Saints, thus influencing his conversion. In his desire to be prepared for the priesthood and be the best the Church has, he pursued knowledge through education. He then composed the //Spiritual Exercises// to aid others in their abilities to understand and follow Jesus. In 1534, Ignatius along with approximately six to nine other priests met in Montmartre, near Paris, in the Church of Saint Denis. They referred to themselves as the //Company of Jesus// or the //Friends// //in the Lord//. They were originally ordained to devote themselves to ministering and charitable work in Italy, with the number of members was limited to sixty. However, the number of members being limited was removed through the papal bull, //Injuctum nobis// on March 14, 1543.

Ignatius was chosen to head the order. He puts together the //Formulas of the Institute of the Society of Jesus// which establishes the fundamental principle for the charter of the Jesuit order. This formula was written into two papal bulls, the first was signed by Pope Paul III in 1540, and the second was signed by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order. As superior-general his first official act was to send the other members out as missionaries, to which, in order to be successful in their missionary pursuit, Ignatius included the obligation for each and every missionary priest to create an educational facility. With this direction in mind, over a very short period of time many schools had been founded throughout Europe, with training in theology and the classic studies exemplified. Soon Jesuits were doing ministering and performing missionary work worldwide. Ignatius was adamant about insisting on all Jesuit members having an accelerated level of academic education in preparation for the ministry. This is due to his realization of the volume of relatively poor education in the vast number of practicing clergy of that time. There was, however, a requirement for the highly educated Jesuit to take a vow against any attempt toward personal gain, either financial or power. According to Wise, even though the Society of Jesus had not planned for a series of educational facilities when it was founded, the need soon became obvious and network of colleges, universities and schools soon blossomed using their education to educate others. Thirty-five colleges were founded between 1549 – 1556. The //Ratio Studiorum//, which is the plan of studies, was formally established in 1599 by a committee of academics to create the official plan for Jesuit education. The original plan for Jesuit studies are in the //Constitutions,// written by Ignatius, with the idea is that an intellectual choice of the “greater good” “must be made for the good which is most universal and most beneficial”. Ignatius also influenced an activity, based to adapt to the individual, called the Spiritual Exercises, which are “to be prayed and lived, not read.” This influence is still alive and active, and is the grandfather to what we today call a Retreat (29). Wise goes on to write that “the concept of what the studies are based on is a solid ground in grammar, with a progression of studies from the lower class of grammar through the humanities and rhetoric, through philosophy, mathematics, and science, but only one field at a time and in order.” Wise finishes his article by identifying the methods used and the reason for the Jesuits’ success by using games and contests, mixed with mild discipline, in combination with the teachers actually taking a real interest in each student (31).

Ignatius encouraged people to receive the Eucharist regularly, causing the Jesuits to be official supporter of frequent communion, changing from semiannual or quarterly participation to weekly or daily partaking. Following the establishment of the Jesuit order, the members joined the movement of the Counter Reformation and began to reform the Church from within. They needed to prevent Protestantism from taking completely over and preserve the Church’s traditional practices and sacraments, including the frequency of the Holy Communion. However, the priests did realize that the ruling body of the Church showed obvious signs of corruption. The Jesuit educational facilities were a major contributor in returning people to Catholicism at a time in which many European countries had become predominantly Protestant. Jesuits, themselves, were an important factor in the Counter-Reformation, not only because of their intellectual ability, but because of their free living arrangement. The Jesuits were not required to reside together as a community of priests. They were out and about, throughout Europe, allowing each to actually detect and facilitate to meet the needs of the people of their area.

“Sixteenth-century Europe witnessed an extraordinary succession of changes. Prices soared and population jumped, checked by periodic bouts of plague, military conflict, and famine. The "long sixteenth century" witnessed the expansion of new trade routes to both East and West and the shift of commercial hubs from southern to northern Europe. Increasingly powerful centralized governments sought greater control over schools and other institutions (Carlsmith 217).” At this point there were many conflicts throughout Europe between the Catholics and the Protestants, both agreeing that education as being a crucial part of the teachings of religion, and both fighting to implement their practices on a extensive scale.

Jesuits have been accused of many illegal or immoral actions. There has been much controversy throughout the lifetime of the Jesuit order. The "Secret Instructions of the Jesuits," published approximately 1600, is alleged to define the means to be used for the gaining of more power and influence for the Jesuits and the Church. Many historians and scholars throughout time since have agreed that the publications were fictitiously created to give the Jesuits a sinister or cunning reputation. Another controversial episode involved a leading English Jesuit, Father Henry Garnet, who was hanged for knowing, but not reporting the criminal offence of treason by another. Supposedly, he was accused to having been involvement giving the only justifiable reason for him not to report the actions to the authorities. The incident was called the “Gunpowder Plot,” which appeared to be a planned attempt on the life of King James I of England and of King James VI of Scotland, as well as high profile Protestants, the royal families, and all members of the House of Parliament. On occasion, because the Jesuits are not stringently dogmatic, even within the Catholic Church and its government, there has been a tense relationship between the order and the Vatican because of the priests' questioning of official Church stand and papal directives. Many of the subjects of debate are regarding sensitive areas of society, such as birth control, abortions, and women in the clergy.

Ignatius places God at the beginning of everything. The teaching for his followers is that God gives of himself to all of mankind in the perfect and absolute way, through the Son, and that God is ever at work in one’s life. He also teaches that mankind returns this love through total donation. Ignatius believes that God is in all things and all things are in God, giving Jesuits to free hand to teach of God through all aspect of life, church and school. At the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, the Jesuits had already founded more than seventy universities, each providing a liberal education in the classic subjects. Today, the Jesuit Order of Priests is the largest order of priests, located and practicing throughout all parts of the world. Also, the Catholic institutions of education have been a prevalent entity of our society throughout the Jesuits’ history. Today, the Church operates the world’s largest non-governmental school system, currently educating more than two million students. Catholic schools, colleges, and universities provide religious as well as lay education for students in preparation for further education or to enter the work force. Parochial schools have a general reputation for excelling in academics at all levels of education.

So, to answer the question as to what makes the Jesuits so special…it is because they answer that special calling that only a select few hear. Then instead of going into it feeling the Church can place them in work they may be able to do, the priests of the Jesuit Order push themselves in the pursuit of knowledge to ensure their value in the service of God. There are many good and educated men in the world, but this is an assemblage of men that have a multitude of factors in common. So why are they special? They are not special just because of who they are, or what they do, or how well they do it. They are special because of the combination of these things.

Winterton, Francis. //__Philosophy among the Jesuits__//. Oxford University Press, 1987, 254-274

//Focus: //Winterton writes of the philosophical strength of the Jesuits in support of the Church. In the essay he is addressing the concept that even though philosophy is only second in position of importance to the Jesuits, it is still a necessary instruction. Winterton questions, “By what means can the interests of the Church be best promoted intellectually?” He then sets up his argument by writing “it is a fact that the better and stronger the arguments given in favour of the Church, the more easy a task it is to believe. Therefore it only remains to look out the best arguments and the best system of philosophy whereby to defend the Church.”


 * || Jesuit philosophy || Results ||
 * Church Duty || the greater the number of souls saved by any man, the surer that man is of his own salvation; || the Jesuit gives effort to uphold the Catholic Church, resulting in the greater number of souls he is sure to help save. ||
 * Upholding the Church || the Church cannot be and cannot do wrong || Every force, doctrine, philosophical system, hypothesis, influence, or tendency that is antagonistic to the Church, is resisted and opposed. ||
 * Philosophy and the first Jesuit (St. Ignatius) || St. Ignatius had nothing whatever of the speculative philosopher in his nature; he was, on the contrary, intensely and overwhelmingly practical. || St. Ignatius arrived at the conclusion of what the Scholastic Philosophy was to be made of, knowing that no system of philosophy is to have a variance with the dogmas of the Church ||
 * Negative Perspective || “Showing off” || Humiliated other orders, but not to the point of going against the effort to uphold the Church ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Implication: Winterton arguments that intellect and philosophy are in the best interest of the Church. He is reiterating a known fact of the Jesuits. They are the order of the educated priests and their abilities allow them to think through what needs to be done rather than just to act or react. Jesuits ability to think has caused their order to be referred (often kindly) as cunning, shrewd, perceptive, insightful, understanding, or observant, meaning they are capable of being astute or of acute mental/analytical ability.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Winterton, Francis. “//Philosophy amoung the Jesuits//.” __Mind__, 12:46 (1987), 254-274 (found in JSTOR)

Wise, John E. //__Jesuit School Beginnings__//. History of Education Quarterly, 1961, 28-31

//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Focus: //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Wise writes of the distinction between the orders of Priests during the sixteenth century based solely on education. He writes of the overall superiority of the Jesuits education from the beginning of its conception and prior by addressing the personal desire for further education by Ignatius of Loyola prior to founding the order. In this article he is concentrating on the importance of education in the service to God. Wise continues his argument in favor of the strength of Jesuit education by writing of the influences, indicating the sources and challenges motivating the Jesuits educational needs and path. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Implication: Wise arguments that education is paramount in the Jesuits’ service to God and contribution to mankind. Jesuits not only acquire as superior education as possible for themselves, but they in turn educate others, while continuing to follow all teaching set forth by the Church.
 * || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Need || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Results ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Founder: Ignatius de Loyola || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">desire for more education personally, not to teach or found schools, but to be properly prepared for the priesthood || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">not only pursued and received an education for himself, but went on the found the “Society of Jesus” order of priests known as the Jesuits ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Priest || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">although there is a need for many goods to be done, an intelligent or best-educated choice will result in the most widespread and beneficial good || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Priests following the Ratio, Constitution, and Spiritual Exercises set by the order to ensure all are educated the same ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Laity || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">plan of studies in grammar, humanities, rhetoric philosophy, math, and science, one at a time and in order || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Between 1548 and 1556 thirty-five colleges were opened ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Method of teaching the laity || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">emulation, competition, games, contests, with mild discipline || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">“The success of the Jesuit schools may be attributed to the personal interest of the teachers for their students” ||

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Wise, John E. “//Jesuit School Beginnings//.” __History of Education Quarterly__, 1:1 (1961) 28-31 (found in JSTOR)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Martin, A. Lynn. //__The Jesuit Mystique__//. The Sixteenth Century Journal, 1973, 31-42 //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Focus: //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Martin writes of the perspective of what society has defined the Jesuits to be and to have been since their conception. In this article Martin is analytical in the many eyes the priests are seen through. Even though the Jesuits were founded as an order of Priests, there are many negative concepts that were and are attached to their being. Martin continues the article beyond the mere definition with the argument that the Jesuits do have their mystique, but to some it is a bestial mystique, and goes on to write that although some of the elements in the traditional picture of the Jesuits are unsupported while others contain an obvious element of validity. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">political involvement is not a myth because Jesuits would leave their duties to work for the courts, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">monolithic character is a myth because the Jesuits were considered to be a group of individuals working against each other for the greater glory of God ||
 * || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Who or when || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Results ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Defination || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">anti-Jesuits originating primarily in Western Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Crafty, intriguing, equivocating person (English), cunning zealot (German), hypocritical or hypocritical person (French, Spanish, Portuguese), someone with secret intentions (Dutch) ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Plots || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">opponents of the Jesuits during 1500s – 1600s || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Against Elizabeth of England, against French Catholic League, to assassinate William of Orange, Assassinate Henry IV ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Myths || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">mostly in France during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Blind obedience, political involvement, monolithic character ||
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Realities || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Jesuits in France during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries || <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">Blind obedience is a myth because of the many proven cases of blatant disobedience,

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Implication: Martin’s argument that the Jesuits have an air of mystery or an air of secrecy to many during the time of reformation of the Christian church provides his readers with a clear, descriptive work, pulling no punching by softening the word choice. Martin calls it as it was. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Martin, A. Lynn. //“The Jesuit Mystique.”// __Sixteenth Century Journal.__ 4:1 (1973) 31-40

I may use more than three, but here are three to start.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">1 - JSTOR: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Ecclesiae militantis triumphi: Jesuit Iconography and the Counter- Reformation Author(s): Kirstin Noreen Source: The Sixteenth Century Journal, Vol. 29, No. 3 (Autumn, 1998), pp. 689-715 Published by: The Sixteenth Century Journal

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">2 - JSTOR: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Philosophy among the Jesuits Author(s): Francis Winterton Source: Mind, Vol. 12, No. 46 (Apr., 1987), pp. 254-274 Published by: Oxford University Press on behalf of the Mind Association

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">3 - JSTOR: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Struggling toward Success: Jesuit Education in Italy, 1540-1600 Author(s): Christopher Carlsmith Source: History of Education Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Summer, 2002), pp. 215-246 Published by: History of Education Society

4 - JSTOR: <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">SocietyJesuit School Beginnings Author(s): John E. Wise Source: History of Education Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1 (Mar., 1961), pp. 28-31 Published by: History of Education Society

Cited:

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Carlsmith, Christopher. //“History of Education Society// //<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">Struggling toward Success: Jesuit Education in Italy” //__<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">History of Education Quarterly, __<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">42:2 (2002) 215-246 (found in JSTOR)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Martin, A. Lynn. //“The Jesuit Mystique.”// __Sixteenth Century Journal.__ 4:1 (1973) 31-40

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Trigilio, Rev. John, PhD, ThD and Rev. Kenneth Brighenti, PhD. "//Catholicism For Dummies//." Hoboken, NJ: Wiley, 2003

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Winterton, Francis. “//Philosophy amoung the Jesuits//.” __Mind__, 12:46 (1987), 254-274 (found in JSTOR)

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Wise, John E. “//Jesuit School Beginnings//.” __History of Education Quarterly__, 1:1 (1961) 28-31 (found in JSTOR)